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PROPERTIES OF STEEL

Lightweight steel obviously will lose its ability to support loads early. To my knowledge, the amount of heat needed to cause failure and collapse has not been reported or well documented, although observations indicate that when heat conditions have extended throughout the majority of the area (in this case, the second floor) and these lightweight steel members are the only means of support, failure will occur, and it could be catastrophic.

(4) The obvious deformity of these steel structural members shows that the collapse of this building resulted from the load applied. It is also obvious that the steel framing did not contribute to the fire load. However, if anyone were trapped in this building, rescue would be impossible.

The properties of structural steel construction are well documented. Steel is greatly affected by heat. At approximately 400°F, steel begins to lose strength; at 1,200°F, it will have lost more than 60 percent of its strength. Steel can be expected to fail when temperatures are in the proximity of 1,000°F. Steel elongates when heated; a 100-foot steel beam heated to 1,000°F will expand 9 1/2 inches.

The failure rate of steel is affected by the following: the size of the steel member, the load supported by the framing system, the amount of heat exposure (this will vary according to the amount and type of interior finish used to cover the steel framing), and the distance from the steel unit to the fire.

The only protection for the steel is the gypsum board wall covering. The thermal insulation priorities of 1/2-inch gypsum board will not greatly delay the transfer of heat to the framing members. Once the wall stud space inside the wall reaches 500°F, failure is possible. These structural members do not need a great deal of time to be heated to the failure temperature. They lack mass!

The cold-formed steel members have periodic holes punched through the member. The holes, like all penetrations, will allow fire and heat to travel in concealed spaces. Although they may not be directly related to the collapse problem, the penetrations are of concern when checking for extension. These holes will also allow hot fire gases to weaken other steel members. In looking at one of these homes under construction, voids that extended throughout the walls were noted. Fire can easily travel to the attic once it enters a concealed space.

THE DANGERS OF LIGHTWEIGHT STEEL CONSTRUCTION
06/01/2006

BY KARL K. THOMPSON (the danger of using light weight steel STUDS in buildings constructions).

Why the world trade centre towers collapsed!
Stanford Report, December 5, 2001

Structural engineer describes collapse of the World Trade Center towers
BY MARK SHWARTZ

"The damaged columns held up the weight of the building, so logic would dictate that the building would fall," said Hamburger, "but that didn't happen. Because of its great structural redundancy, the load was distributed to other parts of the building. We have reason to believe that, without the fire, the buildings could have stood indefinitely and been repaired. But we did have a fire."

Born of fire

Hamburger noted that the fuel in both jetliners burned off rapidly, despite media reports that the aircraft continued burning long after the crash.

"The impact probably caused a failure of the fireproofing in the affected areas," he said. "We think that the fuel ignited several floors in the building," he added, which had a devastating effect on the steel support beams.

"Steel is born of fire," Hamburger explained. "As it's reheated, it expands and loses its rigidity. Above 1,000 degrees Fahrenheit, it loses a significant amount of its strength."

He said the extreme heat from the fires might have caused the steel floors to expand and bow, which may have caused the support columns to bend inward and buckle. Heat also may have caused the steel flooring to separate from the columns, or the columns themselves may have heated up and buckled outward.

Hamburger and his colleagues have not yet determined which of these scenarios occurred on Sept. 11, but there is little doubt that the collapse of the upper floors of the WTC towers brought down both structures.

"Think of the impact of dropping a 25-story building straight down," Hamburger told the audience. "It was like a pile driver, which is why it collapsed as it did."

Vulnerabilities

While acknowledging the many innovations that went into the design of the WTC towers in the 1960s -- including one of the earliest applications of computer stress analysis -- Hamburger also cited several features that made the buildings vulnerable to the intense fires that ultimately caused their collapse.

"The floor trusses [joists] were relatively flimsy. As the tower collapsed, the trusses just fell apart," he observed, noting that trusses are difficult to fireproof.

Hamburger noted that each tower was constructed using a novel tube frame system designed to resist winds of up to 80 miles per hour. But the connections of the tube frame were weak, causing them to break apart and become three-pronged missiles that crashed into the street and into nearby buildings.

Hamburger also discussed the collapse of WTC Building 7, which housed the offices of Con Edison, the FBI and the CIA.

"WTC-7 was a 47-story building and became a two-story pile of rubble," Hamburger said, "making it the first major structure in the United States to collapse because of fire."

Future designs

He pointed out that fires frequently occur in high-rise buildings and noted that between 1994 and 1998, 30 fires occurred in the United States in buildings that were 50 stories or taller.

"The question is, should fire protection standards be changed in some significant way in the aftermath of Sept. 11," Hamburger asked, "and should structural engineering designs include consideration of fire load and the response of structures? Right now, structural engineers know very little about fire."